Abstract:

The research explores the effects of the consumption of Instagram on the psychological states and self-esteem of university students, with special attention to the chosen object since it is the most widely used social platform among youths at this stage of their lives. It will discuss the impact of Instagram, especially when adopting upward social comparison. sampling technique employed by this study is quantitative with purposive sampling technique, and the study gets responses from 230 people. The survey adopted several scales: eligibility criteria: Participants had to be over 18 years of age, own an Instagram account, complete the Instagram Intensity Scale(based on Ellison), Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale, measures of passive and active use of IG, and a Life Satisfaction Scale. The research evidence shows that both active and passive use of Instagram results in a negative shift in the self-esteem of users, meaning that the well-being of university students is impacted.

Key Words:

Instagram, Well-being, Self-esteem, Social Comparison

Introduction

The Internet is an extensively utilized service worldwide, and its variety of users keeps growing gradually (Czarkowska and Gumkowska, 2017). The Internet is readily available, comparatively affordable, and also highly required after. Computers and smartphones are the primary means of accessing the online world, acting as the main accesses to online platforms. The widespread usage of online platforms amongst individuals of all age groups opens up opportunities for establishing digital connections with other users. There is a common belief that those without an online presence on online platforms are virtually invisible in the online realm. It’s challenging to avoid the perception that a number of individuals have taken it to a greater extent by moving their actual lifestyle experiences to the online realm, prioritizing their online social interactions over offline ones (Staniewski & Awruk, 2022). 

The popularity of social networking sites is on the rise, not just among users but also within the commercial realm. Social network service area proves to be more cost-effective compared to conventional promotional channels like newspapers, television, and radio (Lee, 2014). Additionally, their effectiveness is enhanced by the considerable increase in user numbers (Nelson-Field et al., 2013). It has significantly transformed how individuals live their lives during the last ten years. The ways in which we communicate with one another have certainly changed as a result (Khalid et al., 2020). While there were just a few social networking sites in usage around the sketch of the period, the invention of Facebook heralded an innovative technology in online communication in 2004. Users can access a variety of social media networks and platforms today. Nearly 70% of American people, as of January 2018, had a minimum of one social media account, according to the Pew Research Centre. Compared to 2005, when only 5% of adults used social media, this is a significant increase (Pew Research Center, 2018)

The growth of social networking sites increases rapidly and becomes popular daily. Social media is considered an important part of our daily lives. According to the data, the number of users who actively use social media is 3.96 billion, and 49% of the population worldwide uses it (Statista, 2020). 

Social media is a platform that offers more and more chances in many areas, for instance, education, advertising, marketing, communication, and the exchange of ideas, information, etc. Social media enables people of similar interests to communicate through the internet despite geographical distance through communities. In the commercial sector, it enables institutions to endorse their businesses, increase brand consciousness, and gain new customers by communicating immediately. Moreover, in terms of education, it also enables students to discuss with their class yellows about classroom initiatives, group assignments, or collaboration effectively (Willmott et al., 2006). 

There are so many social media platforms, but Instagram is the most prevalent platform as compared to others like Facebook, Twitter, and Snapchat, especially among young people (Kircabarun & Griffiths, 2018). The range of monthly active Instagram customers was 800 million, and that was determined to reach over 1 billion users in 2018(Klassen et al., 2008).   

Instagram, established in 2010, is a social media platform dedicated to photo sharing, enabling users to upload images and videos to their profiles (Moreton & Greenfield, 2022). Users on Instagram engage with each other by utilizing features such as "likes" and "comments," and they can follow an unlimited number of individuals. (Turner & Lefebvre, 2017). Captions geotags, and hashtags can enhance public interaction with an individual's post, leading to increased engagement (Turner & Lefebvre, 2017). 

Jiang & Ngien's (2020) findings demonstrated that higher Instagram usage intensity correlates with increased comparison with other users. Additionally, elevated levels of social comparison were associated with inferior self-respect. Once engaging in virtual social networks, individuals not only expose their lives for others to observe but also subject themselves to the observations of others, allowing for self-assessment based on virtual experiences. Wang, Wang, Gaskin, and Hawk (2017)establish a positive association between upward social comparison and the use of online social networks, which, as a result, was adversely connected to self-esteem. Consequently, uphill social comparison was identified as an intervening factor in the association between self-esteem and online social network usage 

The use of online social networks, such as Instagram, provides ample occasions for consumers to evaluate those individuals that are based on observations of external entities in an effective environment. This is a result of impacts on self-esteem (Fagundes et al., 2020). Social comparison involves evaluating oneself by comparing with other individuals regarding abilities and opinions, with the goal of self-improvement (Festinger, 1954). Hence, engaging in social comparison enables individuals to determine whether they perceive themselves as superior or inferior to their comparison target(Festinger, 1954). Beyond its evaluative function, social comparison also contributes to self-knowledge, allowing individuals to gain insights into themselves when comparing with others (Festinger, 1954; Gibbons & Buunk, 1999; Wood, 1989).

Statement of the Problem

Instagram has the potential to negatively impact individuals by encouraging them to compare their lives to others who post idealized versions of themselves. Past research has shown people have a tendency to show themselves in a positive light by using an online platform, this can lead others to feel jealous, anxious, and upset about their personal existence( Kelley & Michela, 1980). The use of Instagram has been related to negative social aspects such as lower life satisfaction, depression, and loneliness( Kircaburun & Griffiths, 2018). Additionally, viewing others' posts on social platforms can make people more conscious of their restrictions and defects, leading to worse self-assurance (Gonzales & Hancock, 2011)

 Coulthard and Ogden's (2018) study, established that Instagram may be dangerous to people's emotional well-being. As Instagram becomes more widespread among various age groups, what people perceive can influence how they express and feel. In Contrast to Facebook, where a mutual connection is required, Instagram lets people follow popular individuals and compare their own lives against the "perfect" ones they encounter on social media every day. This can lead to comparisons of jobs, relationships, and lifestyles, which may negatively impact one's self-esteem. 

 Instagram has become a popular platform that influences an individual’s self-esteem both positively and negatively. The study objectives are to observe the possible association connection between self-esteem and Instagram usage in university students. As stated by Vogel et al. (2014), self-esteem relates to the level to which people value themselves. Likewise, well-being can be described as the degree to which an individual expresses contentment or dissatisfaction with their life (Veenhoven, 1996). 

The role of Instagram in people's daily lives has become increasingly significant on a global scaleRecent studies indicate that sixty percent of the population is in innovative economies and over. Fifty percent of developing economies are energetically engaged in the use of Instagram (Pew Research Center, 2018b). It's important to note that the use of Instagram is not restricted to young individuals; a diverse range of demographic categories are now participating in Instagram. This growth in Instagram usage across all categories of age brackets has been operated through the prevalent ownership of smartphones (Pew Research Center, 2018a). 

Hence, within the scope of the research, it’s relevant to explore the potential impact of Instagram on users to reevaluate themselves and their lives, particularly in comparison to others, as suggested by Festinger's (1954) social comparison theory. 

Objectives

? This study aims to compare the influence of the use of Instagram on self-esteem in university students.

? The purpose of the analysis is to find out how different variables related to Instagram are affecting university student well-being.

? The purpose of this study is to examine how Instagram influences self-esteem and well-being among university students males and females.

Significance of the Study 

Instagram is considered one of the most famous social networking platforms, and it has a significant influence on self-esteem, particularly for the youngest people. Social media platforms, including Instagram, can have a powerful influence on the way people perceive themselves and others. University students are at a critical developmental stage in their lives, and their self-esteem can be particularly vulnerable to the influence of social media. Instagram use can affect the user's perceptions of self and well-being overall as they navigate new problems, pause, and individual development. Instagram is one of the most widespread networking sites among this age group, and university students use it actively. Therefore, it's important to understand how Instagram usage can impact their well-being and perceptions of self in order to foster positive social media behaviors. 

Exploring how Instagram usage can influence the self-esteem of university students might assist educators and other professionals in creating focused interventions and support plans that foster digital platform use positively and well-being among students. Considering the impact of Instagram on university students' self-esteem can support policy regulations and guidelines intended for social media usage positively. 

The study is significant in order to understand the impact of SNS usage on self-esteem among a group of people who are especially vulnerable. This research can inform strategies and interventions that promote responsible social media use and develop effective strategies for managing the influence of Instagram on self-esteem and well-being.

Literature Review

There are so many social media platforms both in terms of scope and function (Ferreira, 2016). The greatest popular social media platforms are Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram and often used on an everyday. Instagram is a mobile phone application where users share photos and videos but may have some new objectives related to its use as well (Sheldon & Bryant, 2016).  Instagram is an internet application that establishes the ideological groundwork and enables users to create and exchange user-generated content (Ferreira, 2016). Instagram relies on web-based technologies that are used to share, create, and modify user-generated content (Schiffman & Wisenblit, 2015).   Instagram is the wildest developing social networking platform used by people to stake photos and videos with attached descriptions. And others are encouraged to comment, share, and like in response (Anderson and Jiang, 2018; NORC, 2019). Instagram is a great social media platform that is different from other online networking sites particularly Facebook (Vries, Moller, Wieringa, Eigenraam & Hamelik, 2017). However, there has been limited research conducted on the particular impacts since it is relatively new that this practice of social networking sites has on individuals. Lup, Trub, and Rosenthal (2015) in their study reveal that Instagram engages users with positive ways of self-presentation and also engages individuals to select and display positive aspects of their lives. He proposes that postings tend on Instagram to be more positively biased than Facebook ones, even though the a paucity of research in this area. This is possibly due to editing and enhancing tools of photos and videos that encourage users to fix and polish their efforts. Even though currently, there is less research on Instagram use and effects, what there is deals a theoretical framework for understanding how image-based social media may affect users' well-being and self-esteem. Despite the widespread skepticism regarding the credibility of Instagram's message, numerous individuals exert considerable effort to pursue unattainable ideals. People engage in comparisons with others, evaluating their physical appearance, intellect, and socioeconomic status. This process of social comparison, acknowledged since Festinger's seminal work (1954), exerts a profound influence on one's self-esteem. 

Active Instagram usage defined by Verduyn et al. (2017), involves direct engagement with others' content. Examples include uploading pictures on Instagram, liking others' posts, or commenting on statuses. The literature highlights positive results associated with active engagement, such as fostering positive social associations and individual well-being (Myers, 2000). On the other side, passive usage may not be as useful. Passive use refers to monitoring others' accounts without actively participating (Verduyn et al., 2017)

Influence of Instagram on self-esteem

Self-esteem is defined as: “an individual's assessment of themselves, encompassing both positive and negative evaluations and their perception of their worthiness and competence” (Coopersmith, 1965). It holds significant importance for intellectual health and overall self-esteem, as low well-being is associated with various psychological issues such as depression, anxiety, feelings of jealousy, emotional distress, and reduced life contentment (Hawi & Samaha, 2017; Leary & Baumeister, 2000).  

Research has generated mixed findings regarding the influence of Instagram use on self-esteem, with both positive and negative effects observed. However, a comprehensive meta-analysis conducted by Saiphoo et al. (2020)incorporating data from more than 100 studies revealed an uncertain yet noteworthy harmful association between online networking use and self-esteem. The results of this study can be summed up by the alternative hypothesis and suggests that as individuals substitute strong, in-person relationships with weaker online connections, their self-esteem tends to diminish (Huang, 2017)

One idea that many people have looked into is the Social Comparison Theory. This theory says that individuals naturally compare their own opinions and abilities with those of others. It's like looking at how you stack up against your friends or classmates (Festinger, 1954).

The psychological theory of Leon Festinger defines social comparison as “the tendency in which someone evaluates his/her self in relation to others, e.g., Skills, beliefs, attitudes, emotions, physical attributes, or any other personal aspects in comparison to others. (Gayer & Vaughan-Johnston, 2018). It argued that when people see others who seem better than them in some way, they feel bad about themselves. It's feeling down when you see someone doing better than you on a test in a game. By making objective comparisons an inherent element of the socialization process, it conceptualizes folks as having an essential need to evaluate themselves against others. This method of comparison is objective and involves grouping individuals based on attributes like gender, age, experience, or stage of life, then evaluating them using more subjective standards. 

Instagram and Social Comparison 

Social comparison on Instagram is different from that in a real-life environment because direct interaction includes a more subjective approach. Instagram's unbiased nature is intended to exclusively highlight only the positive parts of a person's life. Although the features make it easier for users to carefully craft and display themselves only in a good light, it accommodates creating the perception that others are performing better in comparison (Vogel at el.2015). Thus, creating the ideal setting for such a comparison to take place.  Additionally, it exposes users to a sizable pool of comparison targets with comparable histories, providing an overflow of information for comparison that would be less likely to be possible in a real-world social setting(Mayukh & A.Manaf, 2022)

Given the benefits of social media platforms which enable users to show themselves in a positive light, more recent research on the implications of social comparison on Instagram suggests that folks are more expected to make increasing evaluations (Vogel et al., 2014). Therefore, the results of research looking at the effects of daily Instagram usage and frequency on both upward and downward social comparison showed that people who spend time exploring the posts of others' updates or leaving comments on their photos are more likely to use Instagram more frequently as well as engage in more social comparison of all types (Hwang, 2019).

Jan et al. (2017) exposed that when it comes to social comparison, followers do upward comparisons quite more frequently than downward ones—up to 49 times more often. This pattern might be an indication of this group's tendency to use social media to present a well-curated and positive image of their personalities to other people. As a result, their online presence often portrays a more successful and enviable life than their actual reality. In essence, the average Instagram user may give the impression of leading a more fulfilling and prosperous life compared to the normal person in actual circumstances (Kramer & Winter, 2008). 

Social comparison is a type of evaluation that occurs when individuals compare themselves with others. The study examined the emotional effects of social comparison on Instagram toward strangers. They focused on how content posted by strangers impacted users. The findings revealed a negative correlation between positive posts from strangers and viewers' emotions. People who have a tendency to compare themselves with others experienced reduced feelings of positivity when they were exposed to an increased number of positive posts. These findings underscore the influence of social comparison theory, particularly within image-based social networking platforms like Instagram (Festinger, 1954).

Instagram and Well-being

Subjective well-being, as defined by Myers (2000), pertains to an individual's satisfaction and overall happiness with their life. According to Myers and Diener (1995), well-being is also described as including an individual's mental state and emotions. People with lower levels of well-being often view their daily experiences in a negative light, leading to increased feelings of depression, anxiety, and anger. Similarly, Verduyn et al. (2017) define well-being as individuals' perceptions and evaluations of their own existence. Their comprehensive study highlights the significance of subjective well-being as a primary objective that individuals seek in all stages of their lives. In this research, well-being is described as the general life contentment of a person, gauged through the Life-satisfaction Scale typically utilized in comparable research studies. Subjective well-being encompasses several individual characteristics, but it primarily centers on feeling happy and satisfied with one's life (Myers 2000; Verduyn et al., 2017). Previous research has established a connection between frequent usage of Instagram and increased levels of personal well-being, as measured by the Life-satisfaction Scale (Verduyn et al., 2017)

Based on the existing literature, evident connections exist between the utilization of digital media platforms and the well-being as well as self-esteem levels of users. However, while these associations are addressed in the existing literature, a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms underpinning these connections remains elusive. Within this context, the Social Comparison Theory asserts that individuals exhibit a proclivity for incessantly comparing their own lives with those of others. Instagram, as a predominantly visual-centric digital media platform, offers a fertile mill for folks to occupy in these social comparisons, owing to the abundance of meticulously curated and extensively edited images. The visually flattering nature of Instagram content is deliberately aimed to foster sites of upward social comparison, wherein people gauge themselves against those they identify to be superior, ultimately leading to negative self-perceptions. This conceptual framework serves as the theoretical foundation for the current study, which endeavors to scrutinize the interplay between patterns of social media use and resulting user outcomes. The existing literature has indicated that active engagement with Facebook often translates to heightened social connectedness and the accrual of social capital. Nevertheless, the literature falls short when it comes to establishing a definitive link between energetic Instagram usage and its influence on consumer self-esteem.  Furthermore, the prevailing literature underscores the potential effect of usage Instagram intensity on users of digital media platforms. As previously discussed, usage intensity has been correlated with augmented social assets, both in relationships of connection among users and the establishment of weak ties. 

Hypotheses

H1: The research proves that the more frequently users of social networks post on Instagram, the higher their self-esteem is.

H2: In their study, they identified a positive relationship between Insta use and user welfare.

H3: Effectiveness to self-image and welfare varied across the genders, and female users were more likely to be more effective than male users.

Theoretical Framework

According to Festinger's (1954) social comparison theory, people like to see how they measure up against others. Festinger talks about two kinds of social comparison: looking at people better off than you (up social comparison), and looking down at people who seem worse off than you (downward social comparison). When we compare ourselves to those we think are doing better, it can make us feel bad about ourselves. On the other hand, comparing ourselves to those we think are worse off can make us feel better (Nortje, 2020). A lot of times, upward comparisons can bring us down because we might feel like our lives don't quite measure up unless we think we can keep up with the Joneses (Halliwell & Dittmar, 2005). Studies show that more often than not, people are more likely to compare themselves upwards rather than downwards (Gerber et al., 2018). This research will look into how comparing oneself upwards affects self-esteem and overall well-being, especially among university students.

Methodology

The present research employs a quantitative approach to investigate the impact of Instagram usage on individuals' well-being and self-esteem. The sampling strategy for this study is purposive sampling. In this case, the criteria for participant selection include being active Instagram users within the age range of 18 to 26 years. Both male and female university students were selected as samples. In this research, primary data was collected using a closed-ended Questionnaire about the usage of Instagram. Besides this, Rosenberg's self-esteem scale (Rosenberg, 1965) will be used to identify the participant's level of self-esteem.

The data was collected through an online survey through a Google document from the four university students: UMT, UCP, UET, and PU. In the current study, the distribution of participants was as follows: 37.6% were affiliated with UMT, and 22.8% represented PU, an equivalent percentage.

Measurement and Analysis

Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale

This Scale (Rosenberg, 1965) measures how much participants value themselves. This scale is popular in the field and has been used in many studies to check self-esteem levels (Chen & Bello, 2017; Ellison et al., 2007; Liu et al., 2016; Nabi et al., 2013; Rosenberg, 1965; Verduyn et al., 2015; Wang, Yang & Haigh, 2017). Participants rated ten statements on a scale from 1 to 5. Examples of statements include "I think I'm important" and "I have little to be proud of" (said the other way around). 

The Intensity of the Instagram Usage Scale  

To assess the extent of Instagram usage among participants, the researcher utilized a scale modified from a study by Ellison et al. (2007). This scale was initially created to measure how often and intensely people used Facebook. But we tweaked it to fit Instagram usage better. The assessment focused on participants' own evaluations of how they interacted with Instagram. The questions were set up on a Likert scale to find out how emotionally attached users were to Instagram and how much it impacted their daily lives. As Ellison al. (2007) described, the Intensity Scale was made specifically to measure users' emotional attachment to Social Networking Sites (SNSs). Statements like "Instagram is crucial in my daily routine," "I enjoy showing off on Instagram," and "I feel off when I don't log on to Instagram for a while," were included in this scale, reflecting the depth of users' connections with the platform.

Scores on this scale ranged from 8 to 44, with an average of 32.74 and a standard deviation of 7.58. The reliability was measured using Cronbach's alpha and was found to be .83. Two noteworthy discoveries emerged from this scale - participants typically had between 250 and 400 followers (mean = 7.22, SD = 2.48) and spent about 45-60 minutes per day on Instagram (mean = 3.19, SD = 1.33). These findings shed light on the lives of Instagram users.

Prior research suggests that the typical user spends approximately an hour each day on social media, especially on platforms like Facebook and Instagram. However, our research revealed that participants spent nearly an hour exclusively on Instagram, indicating a shift away from Facebook toward image-based social networking sites. This underscores the importance for the industry to move towards platforms like Instagram rather than sticking solely to text-based ones like Facebook's Image-centric platform.

Satisfaction with Life Scale

We select a life satisfaction scale to measure the well-being of our participants. This scale was selected due to the scale's well-established dependability and capacity to effectively measure affect and life satisfaction, two key aspects of subjective well-being. Past studies have shown that this scale well (Diener, Emmons, Larsen & Griffin, 1985; Verduyn et al., 2015). Verduyn et al.'s research in 2017 mentions about 15 studies that used the Satisfaction with Life Scale to check how users are feeling overall. The five Likert-scale items form the scale aimed to capture user' opinions about their own lives. The "Sample questions include statements like "I would make minimal changes to my life if the opportunity is given." 

Active and Passive Use Measurement 

To identify different patterns of Instagram usage among university students, we use the Active and Passive Use Measurement scale. Gerson, Plagnol, and Corr (2017) first developed the scale to identify active and passive usage inclinations in students. After that, it was subsequently adapted to evaluate different activities for our study related to Instagram usage, as opposed to activities related to Facebook. The original questionnaire involved 14 objects that recognized the activities participants engaged in while using Instagram. The participants had to indicate how often they did different things using a rating system from 1 to 5. Number 5 meant "a lot – almost always," while number 1 meant "never – not at all We focused on actions like leaving comments (being active) and just looking at photos (being passive). Some categories (like "playing games" and "RSVP'ing") weren't important for Instagram, so we didn't include them in our study.

Results and Findings

Based on the existing literature, three hypotheses were proposed to investigate the influence of Instagram on the self-esteem and well-being of university students. The first hypotheses focus on the connection between Instagram usage on self-esteem among university students. To analyze the relationship between two variables, regression analysis was used. 

Table 1 Regression results

Model	R	R Square	Adjusted R Square	Std. Error of the Estimate
1	.349a	.121	.118	3.16691

a. Predictors: (Constant), Intensity

 

As indicated in Table 1. We can see the R-square value is .121 which means that our independent variable i.e. self-esteem causes a 12.1% impact on the dependent variable i.e. Instagram intensity.

Table 2 ANOVAa

Model		The sum of doing Squares		Mean Square	F	Sig.
1	Regression	343.850	1	343.850	34.284	.000b
	Residual	2487.274	248	10.029
	Total	2831.124	249

a.                   Dependent Variable: SELFESTEEM

b.                   Predictors: (Constant), Intensity

 


As Table 2 indicates, ANOVA results show that the p-value is 0.000 which is less than 0.05, hence we say that there is a significant relationship between our dependent variable and independent variable i.e. self-esteem and Instagram.

Table 3 Coefficients

Model		Unstandardized Coefficients	Standardized Coefficients		t	Sig.
		B	Std. Error	Beta
1	(Constant)	13.104	.818		16.021	.000
	Intensity	.179	.031	.349	5.855	.000

a. Dependent Variable: SELF-ESTEEM

 


Table 3 shows the coefficient results. As indicated the beta value is .349, which means that the change in an independent variable that is self-esteem by one unit will bring the change in the dependent variable i.e. Instagram intensity by 0.349 units. Furthermore, the beta value is positive, which indicates a positive relationship between self-esteem and Instagram intensity. In other words, we can say that the self-esteem level increases by the one-unit Instagram intensity will also by 0.349 unit.

Well-being Table 4 Regression results

Model	R	R Square	Adjusted R Square	Std. Error of the Estimate
1	.157a	.025	.021	2.72017

a. Predictors: (Constant), Intensity

 




As indicated in Table 4 we can see the R-square value is .025 which means that our independent variable i.e. well-being causes a 02.5% impact on the dependent variable i.e. Instagram intensity. 

Table 5

Model		The sum of do  Squares		Mean Square	F	Sig.
1	Regression	46.525	1	46.525	6.288	.013b
	Residual	1835.031	248	7.399
	Total	1881.556	249

a.Dependent Variable: WELLBEING

b.Predictors: (Constant), Intensity

 




As Table 5 indicates, ANOVA is .013 which results showing that the p-value incorporates the predictor variable Intensity, which has been found to significantly influence the dependent variable well-being. The F-statistic of 6.288 is statistically significant (p = .013), denoting that Intensity has a meaningful impact on the variability observed in the well-being scores. The model collectively accounts for a substantial proportion of the overall variability within the dependent variable. 

Table 6 Coefficients

Model		Unstandardized Coefficients	Standardized Coefficients		t	Sig.
		B	Std. Error	Beta
1	(Constant)	6.368	.703		9.064	.000
	Intensity	.066	.026	.157	2.508	.013

a. Dependent Variable: WELLBEING

 




Table 6 shows the coefficient results. As indicated the beta value is .157, which means that the change in an independent variable that is well-being by one unit will bring the change in the dependent variable i.e. Instagram intensity by .157 units. Furthermore, the beta value is positive, which indicates a positive relationship between well-being and Instagram intensity. In other words, we can say that the well-being level increases by one unit Instagram intensity will also by .157 units.

To test the third hypothesis, we use Independent T-test, in order to draw a gender-wise comparison.

Table 7

		Levene's Test for Equality of Variances		t-	Equality of Means
		F	Sign	t	do	Sig. (2tailed)	Mean Difference	Std. Error Difference	95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
									Lower	Upper
SELFIES TEEM	Equal variances assumed	.864	.353	-.483	248	.629	-.20840	.4311 8	-1.05765	.64085
	Equal            variances not assumed			-.478	220. 120	.633	-.20840	.4360 3	-1.06773	.65093
WELLBEING	Equal variances assumed	1.659	.199	-.473	248	.636	-.16641	.35152	-.85875	.52594
	Equal            variances not assumed			-.476	234. 283	.635	-.16641	.34990	-.85575	.52294

 


An independent samples t-test was conducted to examine potential differences in means between the two groups for the variables self-esteem and well-being. This analysis also incorporated Levene's Test for Equality of Variances to assess the assumption of equal variances, followed by the t-test for Equality of Means to evaluate the statistical significance of any differences observed.

Levene's Test for Equality of Variances

Levene's Test was utilized to investigate whether the assumption of equal variances could be maintained for both the self-esteem and well-being variables. For self-esteem, the results indicated a non-significant F-value of 0.864 (p = 0.353), suggesting that the assumption of equal variances was met. Similarly, for well-being, the F-value was 1.659 (p = 0.199), indicating that equal variances could be assumed. 

T-test for Equality of Means

Upon assessing the variances, the t-test for Equality of Means was executed to determine whether there were statistically significant mean variations between the two groups for both self-esteem and 

well-being. The results were provided for two scenarios: one assuming equal variances and one that did not.  The t-test for self-esteem produced a t-value of -0.483 with 248 degrees of freedom, assuming equal variances. Both connected two-tailed p-values were 0.629, indicating no statistically noteworthy difference in mean between the groups. The mean variation was -0.20840, with a standard error of 0.43118. The 95% confidence interval for the difference varied from -1.05765 to 0.64085. Similarly, when equal variances were not assumed, the results remained non-significant (t=-0.478, p=0.633).

 For the variable well-being, under the assumption of equal variances, the t-test resulted in a t-value of -0.473 with 248 degrees of freedom. The corresponding two-tailed p-value was 0.636, implying no statistically significant difference in means between the groups. The mean difference was -0.16641, and the standard error of the difference was 0.35152. The 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference ranged from 0.85875 to 0.52594. Similarly, when equal variances were not assumed, the results remained non-significant with a t-value of -0.476 and a p-value of 0.635. 

Descriptive Analysis

In the research, the survey saw the participation of 59.8% females and 40.2% males. When it comes to age distribution, the majority of participants, approximately 51.8%, fall within the 24-26 age range. Another 32.1% of participants are in the 21-23 age group, while 13.4% come from the 18-20 age bracket. Regarding the universities represented in the study, 41 participants are from UMT, 25.9% from PU, 20 from UCP, and 13.2% from UET. When asked about their views on Instagram's role in their daily lives, 27.1% strongly agree that Instagram is a vital part of their daily routine. 

19% of respondents express a neutral stance, while 35.4% agree with this statement. A significant portion, 30%, neither feel proud nor unproudly when using Instagram, while 25.8% agree that they feel proud when they tell people they are on Instagram. On the other hand, 17.5% disagree with this statement, and 12.7% strongly agree that they feel proud to mention their Instagram presence. Conversely, 7.4% disagree with this sentiment. 

 Furthermore, 35.2% of participants agree, and 20% strongly agree that Instagram is an integral part of their daily routine. Meanwhile, 20% remain neutral, and 13.5% disagree with this statement. In terms of feeling out of touch when not using Instagram for a while, 8.7% strongly agree, and 28.7% agree with this sentiment, while 18.3% hold a neutral position, and 27% disagree. Regarding their sense of belonging to the Instagram community, 8.7% strongly agree, and 34.3% agree, while 24.8% are neutral, and 18.7% disagree with the statement. When asked if they would feel sorry if Instagram were to shut down, 9.6% strongly agree, and 25.7% agree, whereas 22.2% are neutral, and 27% disagree. As for having followers on Instagram, 44.3% of participants agree, 18.7% strongly agree, 20% remain neutral, 2.6% disagree, and 3% strongly disagree. Regarding daily usage, 43.9% spend less than two hours on Instagram, 15.2% spend almost two hours, 12.6% spend more than three hours, and 10% spend more than four hours daily on the platform. 

Regarding self-perception, 68.9% of respondents agree, and 8.8% strongly agree that they possess a sense of self-worth, while 12.3% disagree, and 3.1% strongly disagree with this notion. Likewise, 66.8% agree, and 19.7% strongly agree that they recognize their positive qualities, with only 5.7% in disagreement. In terms of feelings of failure, 50.9% disagree, and 17.5% strongly disagree with the sentiment that they consider themselves failures, while 20.2% agree with this statement. 

Additionally, 4.4% strongly agree, 2.2% agree, and 1.8% remain neutral when asked about their abilities, while 17.6% strongly agree, and 59.5% agree that they are as capable as most people. Conversely, 13.7% believe they don't measure up to others, with 10% expressing a neutral or strong disagreement. 

 When it comes to personal pride, 44.4% disagree that they have little to be proud of, while 33.8% agree, 3.3% strongly agree, and 11.1% strongly disagree with this notion. 

 Regarding their attitude towards themselves, 22% strongly agree, and 58.7% agree that they maintain a positive outlook, while 11% disagree with this statement.  Furthermore, 20.6% strongly agree, and 58.3% agree that they are satisfied with themselves, but 13% disagree with this sentiment. 

 In terms of self-respect, 23.7% strongly agree, 52.7% agree that they wish to have more self-respect, while 14.3% are in disagreement. When it comes to feeling useless at times, 39.8% agree, and 10% strongly agree, whereas 32.4% disagree. Lastly, 9.3% strongly agree, and 39.4% agree that they don't consider themselves good at all, while 35.4% disagree with this statement, and 8.8% strongly disagree with it.   

When it comes to their perception of life's closeness to an ideal, 16.65% somewhat agree, 32.3% are neutral, 16.1% agree, and 4% strongly agree with the statement. However, 13.5% disagree, and 8.5% somewhat agree that their lives are ideal. Regarding the assessment of their life's excellence, 3.34% remain neutral, while 20.5% agree, 19.2% somewhat agree, 5.8% somewhat disagree, and 3.1% strongly disagree with this statement. In terms of life satisfaction, 27.7% agree, 13.8% strongly agree, and 14.7% somewhat agree with the notion that they are content with their lives. Meanwhile, 25% hold a neutral position, 4% disagree, 4% strongly disagree, and 3.6% somewhat agree with this statement. 

When asked about achieving important life goals, 25.9% agree, and 16.5% somewhat agree that they have obtained significant things they desire in life. In contrast, 25.4% are neutral, while 8.9% disagree, 8% strongly agree, 4.9% somewhat disagree, and 3.1% strongly disagree with this statement. 

20.2% of respondents hold a neutral perspective, believing that life has reached its conclusion, and they wouldn't change anything. In contrast,15.7% somewhat disagree, 14.3% disagree, 9.4% strongly disagree, 17.5% agree, 6.3% strongly agree, and 1.8% somewhat agree with this sentiment.   

Discussion

This study aimed to explore the influence of Instagram usage on the self-esteem and well-being of university students. Three hypotheses were formulated based on existing literature, focusing on how to link Instagram usage and these psychological variables.

Self-esteem

The regression analysis revealed a strong link between Instagram intensity and self-esteem among university students. The R-square value of 0.121 indicates that approximately 12.1% of the variance in self-esteem can be explained by Instagram usage. The ANOVA results further supported this finding, with a significant F-value (F = 34.284, p < 0.001), indicating a meaningful relationship between Instagram intensity and self-esteem.

The coefficient analysis yielded a positive beta value of 0.349, showing that increased self-esteem is linked to increased Instagram activity. This suggests that as self-esteem levels rise, so does the intensity of Instagram usage among university students.

Well-being

Similarly, regression analysis revealed a significant relationship between Instagram intensity and well-being among university students. However, the impact of Instagram on well-being appears to be comparatively smaller, with an R-square value of 0.025, indicating that Instagram intensity accounts for approximately 2.5% of the variance in well-being. Nonetheless, the ANOVA results were still significant (F = 6.288, p = 0.013), indicating a meaningful relationship between Instagram intensity and well-being. 

The coefficient analysis for well-being also showed a positive beta value of 0.157, indicating that higher levels of well-being are associated with increased Instagram intensity. This suggests that as well-being levels increase, so does the intensity of Instagram usage among university students.

Gender Differences

To further explore potential differences, a t-test made up of independent samples was used to compare the means of self-esteem and well-being between genders. Levene's Test for Equality of Variances found that overall these variables had equal variances.

The t-test results did not reveal large variations in self-esteem or well-being between genders (p > 0.05). This suggests that the relationship between Instagram usage and psychological variables such as self-esteem and well-being is consistent across genders among university students

Conclusion 

In conclusion, this study examined how Instagram affects university students' self-esteem and well-being. Results from regression analysis show a positive connection between Instagram use intensity and self-esteem and well-being. Notably, this connection is stronger for self-esteem than for well-being. These findings highlight how crucial it is to observe social media usage habits seriously while striving to understand and enhance university students' well-being psychologically. To some extent, Instagram may improve one's self-esteem and general well-being, but there are certain consequences to be aware of, like comparison-driven behavior and the need for social validation.

The findings are significant regardless of gender, indicating that gender-neutral and inclusive interventions should be used to encourage healthy social media behaviors. Moreover, it appears that parallel correlations exist among all university students, regardless of gender, given the non-significant gender variation in the self-esteem and wellbeing of the university. However, this study has certain limitations. Future research could consider the underlying mechanisms that drive the observed relationships. Investigating factors such as online social support, validation seeking, and content consumption patterns could provide a deeper understanding of the emotional dynamics of social media use. Future research could delve into underlying mechanisms and do longitudinal research to better grasp the emotional dynamics of social media use. 

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